A bidirectional model of sleep and technology use: A theoretical review of how much, for whom, and which mechanisms

The link between technology and sleep is more complex than originally thought. In this updated theoretical review, we propose a new model including bi-directional links between the use of technology and sleep problems.

First, we review the evidence to date for the originally proposed mechanisms of bright light, arousal, nighttime sleep disruptions, and sleep displacement. The bright light and arousal mechanisms have been studied widely in well-designed experimental studies, and the results are consistently showing a small impact on sleep – using a bright screen (vs dim) or stimulating content (vs neutral) does not seem to impact the time it takes to fall asleep (max 10 min longer).

On the other hand, the nighttime disruption and displacement hypotheses have been studied less, but it seems that using technology beyond one’s bedtime meaninglfully reduces the time spent asleep (~1 h). Then, in support of the new direction of effect (sleep problems preceding technology use), we propose two new mechanisms: technology before sleep might be used to fill the time while waiting to fall asleep and/or as an emotional regulation strategy to facilitate the sleep-onset process. We also discuss protective and vulnerability factors that may mitigate or exacerbate the effects of technology on sleep and vice versa (e.g., self-control, parental rules).

Finally, we acknowledge that technology is here to stay and rather than categorically exclude all technology from the bedroom (which many people might not be able to follow through with), we suggest a “harm minimization” approach. This includes, for example, using less engaging activities (e.g., watching TV), minimizing night disruptions (e.g., flight mode), and not using screens later than the intended bedtime (e.g., using alarms to aid time management). We hope this theoretical review will update the public knowledge, guide future public health messages, and prompt new research into how much technology and sleep affect each other, for whom it may be problematic, and which mechanisms may explain their association.